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Table 3 Summary of studies reporting associations between prenatal exposure to heavy metal and epigenetic alterations

From: Prenatal epigenetics diets play protective roles against environmental pollution

Heavy metal

Exposure stage

Epigenetic change

Ref.

Arsenic

In utero

Altered DNA methylation status of specific genes in the placenta

[191]

Prenatal

Altered DNA methylation in artery and placenta

[199]

Prenatal

Altered DNA methylation in newborn cord blood

[192, 193, 196, 197]

Early pregnancy

Decreased DNA methylation in cord blood

[194]

Cadmium

Prenatal

Differentially methylated CpG sites

[208]

Early pregnancy

Altered DNA methylation at multiple DMRs in offspring with sex and possibly race/ethnic-specific effects

[203]

Maternal

Decreased DNA methylation levels in placental PCDHAC1 promoter

[206]

Prenatal

Altered DNA methylation differently in girls and boys

[204]

Maternal

Altered DNA methylation levels in the leukocyte of newborns and their mothers

[205]

Mercury

Prenatal

Increased DNA methylation in umbilical cord blood of infants

[190]

In utero

Hypomethylation of EMID2 gene in placental samples

[230]

Prenatal

Related to DNA methylation at the TCEANC2 region in cord blood samples

[231]

Lead

Prenatal

Hypermethylation at the MEC3 DMR regulatory region

[223]

In utero

Sex-specific trends between Pb and DNA methylation

[222, 227, 228]

Prenatal

Hypomethylation of genomic DNA and Alu and LINE-1 genes in cord blood

[224]

Manganese

Prenatal

Altered placental DNA methylation

[229]